ECOWAS peacekeeping missions and their effects on West African nations / Миротворческие миссии ЭКОВАС и их влияние на страны Западной Африки

Бокерия Светлана Александровна ORCID: 0000-0002-9052-4363 кандидат юридических наук доцент; кафедра теории и истории международных отношений; Российский университет дружбы народов имени Патриса Лумумбы 117198, Россия, г. Москва, ул. Миклухо-Маклая, 6 Bokeriya Svetlana PhD in Law Associate Professor; Department of Theory and History of International Relations; Peoples' Friendship University of Russia named after Patrice Lumumba 6 Miklukho-Maklaya str., Moscow, 117198, Russia bokeriya.svetlana@mail.ru

Нгуевесе Гбаа Эммануэлла студент; факультет гуманитарных и социальных наук; Российский университет дружбы народов имени Патриса Лумумбы 117198, Россия, г. Москва, ул. Миклухо-Маклая, 6 Nguevese Gbaa Emmanuella Student; Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences; Peoples' Friendship University of Russia named after Patrice Lumumba 6 Miklukho-Maklaya str., Moscow, 117198, Russia 1032239593@pfur.ru

Исследование выполнено за счет гранта Российского научного фонда (проект № 23-28-01195).
The research was funded by the Russian Science Foundation (project № 23-28-01195).

Introduction

In the dynamic landscape of West Africa, characterized by diverse cultures, histories, and geopolitical challenges, the pursuit of peace and stability stands as a paramount endeavor ^[1]. Amidst the complexities of regional conflicts and internal strife, the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) has emerged as a beacon of hope, championing peace missions aimed at fostering harmony and prosperity across the region ^[2]. Through its concerted efforts in peacekeeping and conflict resolution, ECOWAS has played a pivotal role in shaping the trajectory of West African nations, leaving an indelible mark on the collective journey towards peace ^[3]. Established in 1975, ECOWAS represents a visionary union of 15 member states, bound by a shared commitment to regional integration, economic development, and, crucially, peace and security ^[4]. From its inception, ECOWAS has recognized the intrinsic link between peace and progress, understanding that sustainable development hinges upon a foundation of stability and tranquility. As such, the organization has steadfastly pursued a multifaceted approach to peacekeeping, leveraging diplomatic, political, and military means to address the myriad challenges confronting the region ^[5]. The scope and significance of ECOWAS peace missions extend far beyond mere interventions in moments of crisis; they epitomize a collective resolve to safeguard the aspirations of West African nations and their people ^[6]. Through initiatives such as the ECOWAS Protocol on Non-Aggression (1978) and the Mechanism for Conflict Prevention, Management, Resolution, Peacekeeping, and Security (1999), ECOWAS has institutionalized mechanisms for proactive engagement in conflict prevention and resolution, laying the groundwork for a culture of peace within the region ^[7].

Moreover, the history of ECOWAS peace missions is replete with compelling narratives of resilience, perseverance, and triumph in the face of adversity. From the pioneering ECOWAS Ceasefire Monitoring Group (ECOMOG) intervention in Liberia (1990) to the landmark efforts in Sierra Leone (1999) and Ivory Coast (2002), ECOWAS has demonstrated its capacity to deploy peacekeeping forces swiftly and decisively, often in the most challenging of circumstances ^[8],[9]. These missions have not only quelled violence and restored stability, but have also paved the way for democratic governance, national reconciliation, and the consolidation of peace dividends ^[10].

Despite the undeniable successes of ECOWAS peace missions, the road to peace in West Africa remains fraught with complexities and uncertainties. Persistent challenges, ranging from transnational threats to governance deficits, underscore the need for sustained commitment and innovation in the realm of peacekeeping. Moreover, the evolving nature of conflict, characterized by non-state actors, asymmetric warfare, and emerging security threats, necessitates a holistic and adaptive approach to peacebuilding in the region ^[11]. To explore ECOWAS peace missions and their effects on West African nations, it is imperative to consider the nuanced dynamics shaping the regional peace and security landscape. By examining the objectives, achievements, challenges, and prospects of ECOWAS peacekeeping efforts. This article aims to unravel ECOWAS peace missions, tracing their origins, assessing their impact, and envisioning their role in shaping the future of West Africa. Through rigorous analysis, illuminating case studies, and thought-provoking discourse, elucidating the enduring legacy of ECOWAS as a vanguard of peace and stability in the heart of Africa.

Methodology

This research is based on the principles of analysis and synthesis, reliability and objectivity. The methodological basis of the article is the systemic approach, which is grounded on the consideration of the object as a holistic set of interrelated elements. The authors used the comparative method to research the ECOWAS peacekeeping missions, identifying their peculiarities, challenges and problems, and the problem-chronological method in analyzing the formation of mechanisms and instruments of ECOWAS for peacekeeping missions in West Africa. Both Russian and foreign academic literature, as well as scientific articles from international peer-reviewed journals specializing in international relations, were analyzed in the research. When writing the article, Google Scholar data on such keywords as ‘ECOWAS’, ‘West Africa’, and ‘ECOWAS peacekeeping missions’ were used in the process of searching for literature and sources on the research topic. The collected material was scientifically summarized and critically reviewed in order to build a logical argumentation in the article and to achieve the research aim.

Map 1. West Africa with ECOWAS member states

Source: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41371-022-00688-8 (accessed: 28.06.2024).

Literature review

The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) stands as a testament to the collective aspirations of 15 different nations bound by geography, history, and a shared vision for regional integration and development. ECOWAS represents a pioneering effort to foster cooperation, solidarity, and progress across West Africa, transcending borders in pursuit of common goals ^[12]. At the core of ECOWAS' mandate lies a steadfast commitment to promoting peace, stability, and security within the region. Recognizing the intrinsic link between peace and prosperity, ECOWAS has embraced peacekeeping as a fundamental pillar of its mission, leveraging diplomatic, political, and military means to address the myriad challenges confronting West African nations ^[13]. Central to ECOWAS' approach to peacekeeping is the belief in regional ownership and collective responsibility. Rather than relying solely on external actors or international organizations, ECOWAS has championed homegrown solutions to regional conflicts, harnessing the expertise, resources, and political will of member states to drive peace initiatives forward ^[14].

One of the most notable manifestations of ECOWAS' commitment to peacekeeping is the establishment of the Mechanism for Conflict Prevention, Management, Resolution, Peacekeeping, and Security. Adopted in 1999, this institutional framework provides the blueprint for ECOWAS' engagement in conflict prevention, mediation, and peacekeeping operations, empowering the organization to respond swiftly and decisively to emerging crises ^[15]. Moreover, ECOWAS has demonstrated a remarkable capacity for innovation and adaptability in the realm of peacekeeping. From the pioneering deployment of the ECOWAS Ceasefire Monitoring Group (ECOMOG) in Liberia in 1990 to the more recent interventions in Mali, Guinea-Bissau, and the Gambia, ECOWAS has continuously refined its peacekeeping strategies to meet evolving security threats and challenges, which raised the question of ECOWAS subjectivity as regional organization ^[16]. Key to the success of ECOWAS peacekeeping missions is the principle of African solutions to African problems, underpinned by the organization's deep understanding of the socio-political dynamics and cultural nuances of the region ^[17]. By harnessing regional expertise, local knowledge, and international partnerships, ECOWAS has been able to facilitate dialogue, foster trust, and build consensus among conflicting parties, laying the groundwork for sustainable peace and reconciliation ^[18].

By promoting peace and security within West Africa, ECOWAS not only safeguards the lives and livelihoods of millions but also creates the conditions for inclusive development, democratic governance, and the realization of the region's full potential ^[19].

History of ECOWAS involvement in peace missions in West Africa

Since its inception in 1975, ECOWAS has been at the forefront of efforts to address conflicts and promote peace in West African nations. The history of ECOWAS involvement in peace missions in West Africa is the organization's commitment to fostering stability and security across the region ^[20]. A brief overview of ECOWAS' involvement in peace missions includes:

Early Years and the Emergence of ECOMOG: In the late 1980s and early 1990s, West Africa was plagued by a series of conflicts, including the civil wars in Liberia and Sierra Leone. In response to these crises, ECOWAS took bold steps to establish the ECOWAS Ceasefire Monitoring Group (ECOMOG) in 1990 ^[21]. ECOMOG was the first-ever peacekeeping force deployed by ECOWAS, consisting of troops contributed by member states. Its primary objective was to monitor ceasefires, protect civilians, and facilitate the delivery of humanitarian aid in conflict-affected areas.

Liberia (1990-1997): ECOMOG's first major deployment was in Liberia, where a brutal civil war had erupted ^[22]. ECOMOG intervened to halt the violence and restore stability, playing a crucial role in facilitating peace negotiations and overseeing the disarmament process. Despite facing significant challenges and casualties, ECOMOG's intervention in Liberia is widely regarded as a success, paving the way for the eventual end of the civil war and the establishment of democratic governance ^[23].

Sierra Leone (1997-2000): Following the success in Liberia, ECOMOG turned its attention to Sierra Leone, where a rebel insurgency threatened to destabilize the country. ECOMOG forces were deployed to support the government and combat rebel groups. ECOMOG's intervention in Sierra Leone helped to stabilize the country, protect civilians, and create conditions for the disarmament and reintegration of former combatants. It also facilitated the implementation of peace agreements that paved the way for long-term peace and development.

Later Peace Missions and Institutionalization of Peacekeeping: In the years that followed, ECOWAS continued to deploy peace missions in response to crises in various West African nations, including Guinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast, and Mali ^[24]. The Mechanism for Conflict Prevention, Management, Resolution, Peacekeeping, and Security, established in 1999, provided a legal framework for ECOWAS' engagement in peacekeeping activities ^[25]. This mechanism institutionalized ECOWAS' role as a regional peacekeeper and enhanced its capacity to respond to conflicts effectively.

Recent Peacekeeping Efforts: In more recent years, ECOWAS has remained actively involved in peacekeeping efforts across the region. From supporting political transitions in the Gambia to addressing security challenges in Mali and the Sahel, ECOWAS has continued to demonstrate its commitment to peace and stability in West Africa. ECOWAS' involvement in peace missions in West Africa has been characterized by a proactive and multifaceted approach to addressing conflicts and promoting peace. From its pioneering efforts in Liberia and Sierra Leone to its ongoing peacekeeping activities today, ECOWAS has emerged as a key actor in the region's quest for stability, security, and development.

Objectives of ECOWAS peace missions

ECOWAS peace missions represent a cornerstone of the organization's commitment to promoting peace, stability, and security across the West African region ^[26]. Grounded in the principles of collective security and regional integration, these missions are guided by clear objectives and mandates aimed at addressing the root causes of conflicts, protecting civilians, and facilitating the restoration of peace. Below are detailed explanations of the objectives behind ECOWAS peace missions and the specific mandates given to ECOWAS peacekeeping forces ^[27]. One of the primary objectives of ECOWAS peace missions is to prevent the outbreak, escalation, or recurrence of conflicts within member states. By monitoring political developments, facilitating dialogue among conflicting parties, and addressing underlying grievances, ECOWAS aims to proactively mitigate the risk of violence and instability ^[28]. ECOWAS peace missions also seek to resolve ongoing conflicts through peaceful means, such as mediation, negotiation, and dialogue.

By fostering trust, building consensus, and facilitating peace agreements, ECOWAS endeavors to achieve sustainable solutions to complex and entrenched disputes. Protecting civilians from violence, human rights abuses, and humanitarian crises is a paramount objective of ECOWAS peace missions. This includes providing physical protection, ensuring access to humanitarian aid, and promoting respect for international humanitarian law and human rights principles as well as support and strengthen democratic governance institutions within member states. This may involve monitoring elections, promoting good governance practices, and building the capacity of national institutions to uphold the rule of law and respect for human rights.

In post-conflict settings, ECOWAS peace missions work to facilitate the disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration (DDR) of former combatants into civilian life. This process is essential for consolidating peace, preventing the resurgence of violence, and promoting long-term stability.

Specific mandates given to ECOWAS peacekeeping forces

The deployment of ECOWAS peacekeeping forces is typically authorized by the ECOWAS Authority, the highest decision-making body of the organization. This authorization provides the legal and political basis for ECOWAS intervention in conflict-affected areas ^[29]. ECOWAS peacekeeping forces are mandated to protect civilians from imminent threats of violence, including attacks by armed groups, human rights abuses, and violations of international humanitarian law. This mandate may involve the use of force, as necessary and proportionate, to ensure the safety and security of civilians. In cases where peace agreements have been negotiated between conflicting parties, ECOWAS peacekeeping forces are tasked with implementing key provisions of these agreements. This may include overseeing ceasefire arrangements, monitoring compliance with peace agreements, and supporting the implementation of DDR programs ^[30]. ECOWAS peacekeeping forces may also be mandated to support the delivery of humanitarian assistance to conflict-affected populations. This includes facilitating the access of humanitarian actors to affected areas, ensuring the protection of humanitarian personnel and assets, and coordinating humanitarian response efforts. In addition to their immediate peacekeeping tasks, ECOWAS peacekeeping forces may be tasked with supporting the capacity building and institution strengthening efforts of national authorities. This may include providing training and technical assistance to security forces, judicial institutions, and other relevant stakeholders to enhance their ability to maintain peace and security ^[31]. The specific mandates given to ECOWAS peacekeeping forces reflect these objectives and empower them to take decisive action to restore peace and stability in conflict-affected areas across West Africa.

ECOWAS peace missions analysis

ECOWAS has been involved in several notable peace missions across West African nations, including Liberia, Sierra Leone, Ivory Coast and Guinea-Bissau. These missions serve as compelling case studies that highlight both the successes achieved and the challenges confronted by ECOWAS in its efforts to promote peace and stability in the region.

Liberia (1990-1997): The civil war in Liberia, which erupted in 1989, resulted in widespread violence, displacement, and humanitarian suffering. ECOWAS responded by deploying the ECOWAS Ceasefire Monitoring Group (ECOMOG) in 1990 to intervene in the conflict. ECOMOG's intervention played a pivotal role in halting the violence, facilitating peace negotiations, and overseeing the disarmament process. The mission helped to restore stability, protect civilians, and create conditions for the establishment of democratic governance in Liberia. ECOMOG faced significant challenges, including the lack of adequate resources, logistical constraints, and resistance from warring factions. The mission also encountered difficulties in coordinating with other international actors and sustaining long-term peacebuilding efforts.

Sierra Leone (1997-2000): Sierra Leone was gripped by a brutal civil war characterized by atrocities committed by rebel groups, including the Revolutionary United Front. In 1997, ECOWAS deployed ECOMOG forces to support the government and restore peace. ECOMOG's intervention contributed to stabilizing Sierra Leone, protecting civilians, and facilitating the implementation of peace agreements. The mission played a crucial role in disarming combatants, reintegrating former fighters into society, and paving the way for democratic elections. ECOMOG faced challenges like those encountered in Liberia, including limited resources, logistical constraints, and resistance from armed groups. The mission also grappled with allegations of human rights abuses and misconduct among its troops.

Ivory Coast (2002-2010): The political crisis in Ivory Coast, triggered by a disputed presidential election in 2002, led to a protracted period of conflict and instability. ECOWAS intervened by deploying peacekeeping forces to monitor ceasefires and support peace negotiations. ECOWAS peacekeeping forces played a crucial role in preventing the escalation of violence, protecting civilians, and facilitating the implementation of peace agreements. The mission contributed to the restoration of stability and the consolidation of democratic governance in Ivory Coast. The peacekeeping mission in Ivory Coast has faced challenges related to the complex political dynamics, including resistance from various factions, spoilers of peace, and delays in the disarmament process. The mission also struggled with resource constraints and logistical difficulties.

Guinea-Bissau (2012): Guinea-Bissau has experienced chronic political instability, coups, and military interventions since gaining independence from Portugal. ECOWAS has been actively involved in efforts to restore constitutional order, uphold democratic governance, and support peacebuilding initiatives in the country. ECOWAS deployed a peacekeeping force, known as the ECOWAS Mission in Guinea-Bissau (ECOMIB), to stabilize the situation and create conditions for a return to civilian rule. ECOMIB played a crucial role in deterring further violence, facilitating political negotiations, and supporting the transition process in Guinea-Bissau ^[32].

Burkina Faso (2014): In Burkina Faso, ECOWAS has been engaged in efforts to address political instability and security challenges, particularly in the wake of the 2014 popular uprising that led to the ousting of long-time President Blaise Compaoré. Following the political transition and subsequent democratic elections, Burkina Faso has faced increased insecurity due to the rise of armed extremist groups and intercommunal violence.ECOWAS has supported Burkina Faso's efforts to strengthen its security forces, combat terrorism, and promote inclusive dialogue and reconciliation. The organization has provided technical assistance, training, and logistical support to build the capacity of Burkina Faso's security institutions and enhance their ability to address security threats effectively.

The Gambia (2017): In the Gambia, ECOWAS played a pivotal role in resolving the political crisis that arose following the disputed presidential elections in December 2016. Former President Yahya Jammeh initially refused to step down after losing the election, leading to a tense standoff and fears of a potential outbreak of violence.ECOWAS, under the leadership of neighboring countries such as Senegal and Nigeria, spearheaded diplomatic efforts to resolve the crisis peacefully. The organization deployed a military intervention force to Gambia, known as the ECOWAS Mission in the Gambia (ECOMIG), to pressure Jammeh to relinquish power and facilitate the inauguration of President Adama Barrow, who had won the election. ECOWAS's intervention in the Gambia helped avert a potential humanitarian crisis and paved the way for a peaceful transfer of power, restoring democratic governance and political stability in the country ^[33].

The case studies of ECOWAS peace missions in Liberia, Sierra Leone, Ivory Coast, in Burkina Faso, Guinea-Bissau, and the Gambia highlight the organization's efforts to address complex conflicts and promote peace and stability in West Africa. While these missions achieved notable successes in restoring peace and protecting civilians, they also faced significant challenges that emphasizes the need for sustained international support, coordination, and capacity building in peacekeeping efforts.

Challenges and problems of ECOWAS peace missions

Despite its significant contributions to peacekeeping and conflict resolution in West Africa, ECOWAS peace missions face a range of challenges and criticisms that impact their effectiveness and outcomes. These challenges come from various factors, including the complex nature of conflicts, resource constraints, institutional limitations, and external pressures. Some of the challenges include the following:

Conflict Complexity and Dynamics. One of the primary challenges facing ECOWAS peace missions is the inherent complexity of conflicts in the region. Many conflicts are deeply rooted in historical grievances, ethnic tensions, political rivalries, and socioeconomic disparities, making them resistant to quick and easy solutions. The involvement of multiple actors, including armed groups, criminal networks, and external powers, further complicates efforts to address conflicts and implement peace agreements. ECOWAS peace missions must navigate intricate power dynamics and competing interests to achieve sustainable peace ^[34].

Resource Constraints and Capacity Limitations. ECOWAS peace missions often operate in resource-constrained environments, with limited funding, logistical support, and personnel. This poses significant challenges in terms of mobilizing sufficient resources for peacekeeping operations, sustaining deployments over the long term, and addressing critical needs on the ground. Additionally, ECOWAS member states vary in their capacities and capabilities to contribute troops, equipment, and financial resources to peace missions. Disparities in military capabilities and logistical support among contributing countries can hamper the effectiveness and cohesion of peacekeeping forces.

Coordination and Cooperation among ECOWAS member states, regional organizations, and international partners are essential for the success of peace missions. However, challenges related to communication, decision-making processes, and political dynamics can impede effective coordination and collaboration. Differences in national interests, competing priorities, and divergent approaches to conflict resolution may also hinder consensus-building and unity of action among ECOWAS member states, undermining the coherence and effectiveness of peace efforts.

Criticisms of Effectiveness and Limitations. ECOWAS peace missions have faced criticisms regarding their effectiveness in achieving sustainable peace and addressing underlying root causes of conflicts. Some observers argue that ECOWAS interventions have been short-term and focused primarily on managing crises rather than addressing structural issues. Critics have also raised concerns about human rights abuses, misconduct, and lack of accountability among peacekeeping forces deployed by ECOWAS. Allegations of misconduct undermine the credibility and legitimacy of peace missions, eroding public trust and confidence in ECOWAS' ability to uphold peace and security.

Conclusion

The effects of ECOWAS peace missions on West African nations have been profound, shaping the roadmap to peace, stability, and development across the region. Through its concerted efforts in peacekeeping, conflict resolution, and institution-building, ECOWAS has made significant contributions to mitigating conflicts, protecting civilians, and fostering reconciliation in diverse contexts. Key findings reveal that ECOWAS peace missions have played a pivotal role in resolving conflicts, preventing the escalation of violence, and facilitating the implementation of peace agreements in countries such as Liberia, Sierra Leone, Ivory Coast, in Burkina Faso, Guinea-Bissau, and the Gambia. These missions have helped to restore stability, promote democratic governance, and create conditions for sustainable peace, laying the groundwork for progress and prosperity in conflict-affected societies. Moreover, the importance of regional cooperation in promoting peace and stability in West Africa cannot be overstated. ECOWAS serves as a crucial platform for dialogue, collaboration, and collective action among member states, enabling them to address shared security challenges and common threats effectively. By pooling resources, expertise, and political will, ECOWAS enhances the capacity of member states to respond to conflicts, manage crises, and build resilient societies. Looking ahead, it is imperative for ECOWAS to continue strengthening its institutional capacity, enhancing coordination and cooperation, and adapting to evolving security threats to consolidate the gains achieved through peace missions. By investing in conflict prevention, addressing root causes of conflict, and promoting regional integration, ECOWAS can further contribute to building a peaceful, stable, and prosperous West Africa for generations to come.